Confronting green extractivism and extractivist violence in the DRC

Executive summary

The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) experiences an increasing demand for critical minerals because of the worldwide drive for renewable energy systems and advanced technology products. This “green extractivism” has increased mining activities that support the green transition of wealthy nations but creates significant negative impacts on Congolese communities. Cobalt mining in the DRC experiences its largest boom due to the high demand for batteries and digital devices. The boom is taking place under poor governance systems that lack genuine approval from local residents. The mining activities result in forced population relocation and violence from armed groups and police as well as labor exploitation, especially of women and children, and environmental destruction. The mining process renders both workers and their families as disposable as the extracted products.

A fair and sustainable path exists despite the harsh conditions. This brief shows how present policies and practices create injustice and conflict, and presents specific actions to be taken by governments together with companies and international actors. The proposed recommendations include strengthening local governance and land rights, enforcing corporate accountability and supply-chain transparency, protecting environmental and human rights and ensuring community involvement in decision-making processes. The DRC's resource frontiers should evolve from being zones of dispossession into sites of shared benefit and dignity. The implementation of justice priorities alongside development and climate objectives will prevent the establishment of new colonialism and violence in “green” technologies.

Problem statement

The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is experiencing a growing mineral demand for the transition towards a green economy. This has increased mining activities. Critical and strategic metals such as cobalt, copper, coltan, are used for battery production and smartphone and electric vehicle manufacturing. The DRC leads global cobalt production with more than 75% and holds the majority of identified reserves while new investments will strengthen its position as the leading resource supplier. The region holds substantial potential for international mining companies and equity providers seeking to invest in these resource frontiers. 

The actual conditions of resource extraction in the ground reveal severe human costs which contrast with the optimistic outlook. The number of artisanal mines has surged throughout the regions near industrial mining concessions and along new road infrastructure. Small-scale miners do manual tunneling and digging operations without any safety equipment while carrying heavy rock sacks in open-air conditions. The mining process at these sites remains dangerous because miners lack protective gear and operate without machinery to extract cobalt from the hills. The practice of manual labor poses serious risks to their survival. The cobalt mining industry in the DRC creates severe human rights problems because it involves dangerous working environments alongside child labor, forced labor of Congolese people and environmental destruction.

The majority of communities witness their lands being seized by project developers while their living conditions deteriorate. Large-scale mining activities involve extensive clearing of forested land and cultivated farmland to establish both open pit and underground mines. Indigenous people claim bulldozers destroy their agricultural land, burial sites and sacred areas for tunnel construction. The displacement of entire villages often occurs without adequate compensation for residents. The process of accumulation by dispossession plays out through state concessions and deals that lead to resource and land concentration among a few wealthy individuals while native people lose their employment and land access. The social contract, which previously protected ordinary Congolese from harm remains unfulfilled as the DRC government receives mineral revenue (through royalties and taxes) but fails to deliver local development projects, including schools, clinics, and job opportunities. This situation leaves ordinary Congolese citizens worse off and less secure.

The management structure of the sector remains disorganized and frequently accompanied by violence. Several government entities, including provincial authorities, military units, police forces, national army elements, and foreign-backed militia groups fight for authority over mining operations and transportation routes. The police, along with armed groups, demand payments from artisanal miners and traders. Artisanal mines located in the eastern provinces have endured fighting for more than forty years. The M23 rebellion which received support from neighboring countries took control of essential mining regions in 2023-24, and resulted in the displacement of hundreds of thousands of people. Mining sites transform into disputed territory because different actors including the government and rebels exercise power through violence or by imposing fees. Multiple militia groups use force to kidnap and murder civilians because they lack weapons which results in communities bearing the greatest burden.

The gendered nature of extraction represents another aspect of the problem. Research conducted in mining towns reveals how the bulk of unnoticed responsibilities weigh down both women and girls in these communities. The majority of hazardous underground work falls to men although women together with children sort the ore and carry loads. Women lack legal recognition and usually get the lowest paying jobs. Sex-based violence increases when disputes occur about mine ownership. Researchers discovered that mining camps have become hotspots for prostitution and abuse because families face economic difficulties. Similarly, child labor is rampant. Children between seven and ten years old must work in hazardous conditions sorting ore and crawling through shafts because their families need the income. Survey teams documented young children drinking or washing in cobalt-contaminated water that feels like lightning which leads to illness and collapse. Artisanal cobalt mining across certain areas operates like “modern-day slavery” because families become trapped through debt obligations and fear.

The ecological damage to local areas reaches critical levels nowadays. The dust produced by mining operations covers both homes and agricultural areas leading to the contamination of food gardens. Tailings and wastewater flow into rivers which causes fish deaths and makes drinking water unsafe. Research conducted in Katanga region revealed that cobalt concentrations exceeded safe levels in both blood and urine samples collected from residents who were not miners including children and their classroom toys. The ongoing mining activities result in the reduction of forests together with wetlands which harms long-term ecological sustainability.

The DRC’s resource frontiers expand rapidly without just distribution. The green development ideology hides the truth about Congolese losing their authority over both their land and their future. The approval of new mining concessions will only lead to intensified dispossession alongside escalating conflicts if nothing changes.

Why it matters

The problems in the DRC extend far beyond its borders. The first problem to tackle is climate and environmental justice. Many Congolese note that they have not contributed to global warming, yet they suffer from its effects. The DRC is one of the countries most affected by climate change, facing threats to its lakes and forests while having one of the lowest per capita carbon footprints, (0.03 tons CO2 annually). However, the minerals hidden under the Congolese soil are critical for climate change mitigation abroad: lithium-ion batteries and renewable energy. We can say that the shift to electric vehicles may be a win for the North but comes at a heavy cost to those in places such as the DRC. The country has more cobalt reserves than the rest of the planet combined, and yet the mining seems to create little or no positive impact on the communities and can be compared to twenty-first-century slavery. Thus, the ‘green’ energy push of the rich nations is creating new forms of neo-colonialism that perpetuate North–South relations shaped by colonialism where Congolese people and lands are used to advance global economic interests.

Moreover, this situation undermines the achievement of global climate change objectives. If the mining industry fuels social disruptions and causes violence, it weakens local communities' willingness to cooperate with conservation and climate change programs. Those who are suffering from illness caused by polluted water or fear for their safety do not care about the carbon targets. There will be resistance to and sabotage of renewable projects such as wind farms and hydropower if the communities feel that they are being neglected and threatened by the extractive interests. In the DRC, the rise of armed groups illustrates that tensions surrounding resources can quickly evolve into conflict that also spills over into other regions. The recent fighting has displaced more than 600,000 people and killed thousands—a humanitarian disaster in part caused by the scramble for minerals. Such instability makes any development or climate work in the region virtually impossible.

A third priority is immediate action based on ethical and moral principles that protect human rights and humanitarian values. The connection between DRC's mineral wealth and severe human rights violations cannot be ignored by anyone. The trends demonstrate extensive structural violence through the systematic marginalization of communities, the lack of basic safety and the weakening of local authority. These are not abstract terms. The actual world shows children getting crushed by cave-ins, while women face beatings at checkpoints for refusing to pay bribes, and foresters are killed when they oppose illegal clearing. The current treaties and corporate codes have failed to safeguard human populations. This failure of governance requires urgent attention because unregulated extractivism forces vulnerable communities into cycles of dispossession and modern slavery. The battle against climate change must not come at the cost of sacrificing any community.

Finally, it is important to realize that there are strategic geopolitical and economic stakes in getting this right. The DRC’s minerals are in high demand among global powers and companies. The decisions made by technology firms, automotive giants, donor governments and multilateral lenders will decide whether the Congolese people will benefit or be exploited once again. Western governments that are interested in Congo’s resources must be cautious not to engage in deals that offer stability or security in exchange for greater access to mines. Experience has shown that such arrangements can lead to either the consolidation of authoritarian regimes or the empowerment of local warlords unless proper safeguards exist. In conclusion, how the world will address green extractivism in the DRC will affect global perceptions of ethical trade and the implementation of human rights.

Policy recommendations

Multiple fronts need coordinated reforms to establish a just and sustainable resource frontier. The following policy directions offer a structured approach:

1. Strengthen governance, rule of law, and community rights

National and provincial governments need to enforce laws more effectively. All mining contracts, licenses, and revenue payments need to be completely transparent with public access to records. The implementation of independent audits together with civil society monitors will prevent companies from stealing ore and evading royalty payments. The protection of local land and resource rights stands as an essential requirement. Congolese communities maintain traditional ownership of their territories, which concessionaires continue to encroach upon. The reforms need to create specific procedures for Free, Prior, and Informed Consent (FPIC), which must be obtained from affected communities before any new mine or project receives approval. The extraction of natural resources on indigenous lands requires indigenous groups and village councils to have the right to deny access. The government must provide resettlement packages with full restoration of livelihoods and equitable compensation to people whose land is taken.

The authorities must eliminate the parallel power structures that create violence. The authorities need to eliminate both illegal militias and roadblocks while reforming police units that practice extortion and abuse miners. The Congolese government should work with UN support to remove military presence from mining areas while implementing civilian supervision. Security forces need to establish protection of civilians as their main priority instead of engaging in exploitative or abusive practices. State agencies need to dedicate mineral revenue funds toward establishing basic services such as schools and clinics, and providing clean water for mining communities. Real development benefits create conditions that decrease both anger and the attraction of armed resistance among people. International donors and debt-relief arrangements should link their financial assistance to specific requirements for transparency and human rights compliance in mining operations.

2. Enforce supply chain transparency and corporate accountability

From diggers through smelters to tech giants, all participants in the cobalt and copper supply chain must accept their responsibility for DRC working conditions. Consumer countries need to pass stronger laws that enforce proper investigation of supply chains. Companies need to demonstrate full transparency through tracing every battery and device from mining sites (“stone to phone”) and publishing their traceability findings. The existing OECD guidelines present a system which all cobalt and electronics companies should implement as a standard practice. Regular supplier audits combined with third-party inspection invitations are essential for firms to verify their contracts contain no child labor, sexual violence, or illegal mining. Supply chain data (export volumes, buyers, transport routes) needs to be accessible for civil-society watchdogs as well as local communities. The purchasing power of major buyers allows them to pressure suppliers to implement better practices by boycotting cobalt sources that engage in abuse activities.

Both national governments and international bodies share accountability in this matter. Countries that import goods (e.g. EU, US) should strengthen their regulations about conflict minerals and apply these standards to all important metallic resources. These governments should award benefits to businesses that confirm their commitment to sustainable sourcing through preferential tariffs and public procurement deals. The Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) should establish global standards that include social impact evaluation together with expanded coverage of cobalt and other minerals. All companies that extract from Congolese mines should demonstrate their contribution to solutions for the mines to generate profit. Another proposal is to introduce a requirement for large-scale mining operations (LSM) to establish funding for artisanal miner formalization alongside community development by forming joint ventures and allocating permits to local cooperatives. Such impact agreements create conditions for mining projects to return more value to communities while preventing the intensification of social inequalities. Contracts and concessions should allocate job positions along with revenue shares to women's cooperatives and community trust funds in order to build local financial literacy and capability.

3. Protect communities, labor, and the environment

The government needs to change its mining policy approach to protect human and ecological health. The government needs to establish safety standards immediately throughout artisanal zones by prohibiting mercury use and improving ventilation systems in mines. The area surrounding large mines requires immediate health interventions that include free clinics and community relocation away from polluted areas. New projects need to undergo strict environmental impact assessments before beginning operations and funds must be allocated for cleanup operations. Erosion control and water filtration projects help in mitigating some of the environmental damage. The funds needed for these measures should derive from mining revenue through higher profit royalties which can be used to restore damaged areas.

Labor protections are critical. The complete elimination of child labor requires both strict enforcement and supportive programs that provide alternative income opportunities. The establishment of additional schools and childcare facilities in mining regions should be supported to prevent children from working in tunnels. Women’s participation needs to be prioritized: special quotas or credit programs should be established to enable women to benefit from mining-related enterprises. Any formalization strategy for artisanal mining must address the realities of local communities because past attempts to formalize the sector excluded women and farmers. The government and donors should fund training programs which teach safety protocols, and business skills and rights education to mining families including women and youth.

Cultural and spiritual values should not be ignored. The Congolese people consider land to be more than economic value because it contains sacred sites that are home to ancestral spirits. Traditional leaders and environmental custodians must participate in all planning activities. A forest should be designated as a protected area when it holds cultural value instead of being surrendered to mining activities. The integration of cosmo political perspectives by authorities will decrease land-related conflicts while building trust between stakeholders. Official mapping of community resource zones combined with their protection during land-use planning operations will create significant progress.

4. Prevent conflict and support peaceful development

Integrating resource management and peacebuilding into a unified system is essential. Security demands in mineral-rich areas need proper coordination with respect for local rights. International partners should provide peacekeeping operations and mediation to specific mining areas which face threats. Extraction conflicts can evolve into full-blown war, as seen in the recent M23 crisis because of foreign interference through rebel support from neighboring nations. Any military or security aid provided by donor governments must be made conditional on maintaining human rights protection for mining operations. The international community must pressure regional actors to stop financing rebels through mineral smuggling activities.

The community needs to receive strengthened grievance mechanisms. People need accessible mechanisms through which they can report abuse and negotiate disputes with mining companies and authorities by creating ombudspersons or community liaison councils. Early conflict resolution prevents problems from worsening. The UN and NGOs together with international observers should verify the ground situation through impartial observation.

Sustainable alternative economic programs should receive support from policymakers as complementary solutions to mining operations. Local communities will receive different income streams through investments in agriculture and forestry development and renewable energy micro-grids which will reduce their reliance on mining operations. Agroforestry projects combine forest restoration with food production to benefit local families who lost their forests to mining activities. The DRC possesses vast potential for hydropower and solar energy which can be developed through community co-ownership structures to meet climate objectives. Green transition initiatives with inclusive economic opportunities will reduce the involvement of guerrilla groups and illegal miners because people will choose sustainable alternatives.

Conclusion

The DRC's mineral resources can enable a green future, but it will happen only through fair distribution rather than exploitation. The present circumstances demonstrate that, without immediate policy adjustments, "green" initiatives will perpetuate colonial exploitation which the country has endured throughout history. Policymakers must directly address green extractivism to break the established pattern. Both global legitimacy and human dignity depend on it, because the ongoing exploitation of Congolese communities for technological advancement undermines the moral basis of climate action.

The solution requires transitioning from emergency response to collaboration between stakeholders. The implementation of a fair green economy requires both governments and companies to respect local perspectives, enforce strict regulations, and invest in development programs that benefit communities. The international community needs to back institutional reforms while also implementing sanctions to prioritize resource development for the Congolese people over foreign interests. Effective implementation of these recommendations by decision-makers will protect vulnerable DRC citizens from the harms of the global low-carbon energy race. Through their efforts, they can establish a just and sustainable resource frontier, one that develops renewable technology based on rights and equity, rather than producing new territories of violence and dispossession.

illuminem Voices is a democratic space presenting the thoughts and opinions of leading Sustainability & Energy writers, their opinions do not necessarily represent those of illuminem.

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